Book Translation : The Three Hundred Years War between Algeria and Spain, 1492-1792 by Ahmed Taoufik El Madani

The Book titled The Three-Hundred-Year War, authored by historian Ahmed Tawfiq al-Madani, serves as a significant scholarly contribution that examines an extensive period of hostilities between the Ottoman Empire and Western powers. This text particularly delves into the dynamics of interaction and conflict within the Mediterranean context. Al-Madani articulates that his analysis illuminates the "Three-Hundred-Year War," which commenced in the 15th century and persisted into the 20th century, involving the Ottoman Empire and prominent European nations. He underscores that this confrontation was not merely a territorial dispute but also encompassed profound cultural and religious dimensions. The Ottomans, as a representative Islamic authority, found themselves in opposition to the Christian European entities, which perceived the ascendance of this Islamic power as a significant threat.
Al-Madani offers a comprehensive examination of the Ottoman-European conflict, focusing specifically on Algeria, an Ottoman province, and the Mediterranean Sea. He interprets this conflict not merely as a series of military confrontations but as a complex struggle encompassing political, economic, and cultural dimensions. In the introductory section of his book, he establishes the groundwork for comprehending how this protracted conflict has played a significant role in shaping both the modern history of the region and the broader world, highlighting the interactions among military, religious, and economic factors.
Al-Madani elucidates that the primary objective of the book is to deliver a thorough and impartial examination of this enduring conflict. He seeks to provide detailed historical insights into the underlying causes of this struggle and to elucidate how the Ottoman-European conflict significantly influenced the historical trajectories of both the Middle East and Europe. He emphasizes that the book intends to shed light on various battles, as well as political and economic transformations that may have been neglected or misinterpreted in conventional historical accounts. A pivotal theme addressed is the Crusades and their impact on global development, commencing with the confrontations between Muslims and Christians during the Middle Ages. Al-Madani posits that these conflicts marked a crucial transition from an age of ignorance to one characterized by knowledge and enlightenment. Furthermore, he contends that the Crusades played a role in the Renaissance of Islamic societies and the reclamation of their autonomy, as the Crusaders, upon invading Muslim territories, were taken aback by the sophisticated knowledge, architectural achievements, and elevated moral values present in Islamic cultures.
The text delves into the historical context of Europe, with a particular emphasis on Britain, where the government was compelled to acknowledge the rights of its citizens in 1215 following their repudiation of the feudal system. Al-Madani also underscores the pivotal invention of the printing press by the German innovator Gutenberg in 1436, which profoundly influenced human thought and the dissemination of knowledge. Subsequently, he examines the commercial renaissance alongside European explorations, highlighting how explorers began to view Eastern civilizations as exemplars of refinement and sophistication. Al-Madani points out the significance of newly established transportation routes that enhanced trade. The maritime explorations were largely driven by the Muslim control of trade between the East and the West. He further illustrates how Europeans sought alternative trade routes, including the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and the Americas, while acknowledging the contributions of the Arab navigator Ahmad Ibn Majid to these explorations.
Then, Al-Madani transitions to the topic of European colonialism, analyzing the ramifications of these advancements, including the European seizure of spice trade routes and the Portuguese establishment of a trade monopoly that displaced Arab and South Asian merchants. This development heralded the onset of European colonialism on a global scale, with far-reaching consequences for colonized populations, particularly in the Americas, where numerous indigenous civilizations faced destruction and African individuals were subjected to enslavement. The author also addresses the Arab conquest of Spain, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, during which the banner of war was raised in the Maghreb. He narrates how Muslims maintained control over Spain for several centuries until the fragmentation of Andalusia in 1492, culminating in the surrender of the Emir of Granada, Abdullah, to various smaller kingdoms. Al-Madani explores the periods of conflict, particularly with King Alfonso VI of Castile, and the necessity for intervention from Maghrebi states, such as the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties, to support the Andalusian populace.
The author proceeds to analyze the Spanish expansion across Europe and the Maghreb, subsequently addressing the emergence of the Ottoman Empire. He outlines the establishment of the Ottoman state by Osman I, who successfully defended against Mongol invasions and captured the city of Bursa. Al-Madani further investigates the essential elements of the Ottoman Empire, highlighting significant military achievements, notably the conquest of Constantinople, as well as their confrontations with the Safavid dynasty. In conclusion, the text examines the Ottoman influence in the Arab world and the political landscape of the Maghreb at the dawn of the 16th century, characterized by a fragmented Arab world comprising various small states, including the Hafsid, Marinid, and Zianid dynasties. Additionally, Al-Madani addresses the issue of piracy in the Mediterranean Sea, which contributes to the intricate historical dynamics of the region.
Ahmed Tawfiq al-Madani organized his book into nineteen distinct chapters. The opening chapter, entitled "The Spanish Aggression and Its Immediate Causes," examines the nature and motivations behind the Spanish aggression. Al-Madani emphasizes the religious dimensions of this aggression, highlighting the role of religious fanaticism and the fervent ambition to convert Muslims and distance them from the tenets of Islam. In terms of political motivations, the author contends that the Spanish monarchs were driven by a need to counteract Ottoman territorial expansion, while the economic factors pertain to the desire to dominate key trade routes.
The second chapter, entitled "Spanish Aggression Before the Turkish Rescue," delves into the period of Spanish military actions prior to the intervention of Turkish forces, spanning from 1505 to 1521. The author initiates the discussion by highlighting the disintegration of the Maghreb region, which had divided into multiple tribal factions. Following this, he elaborates on the Spanish occupation of the port of Al-Marsa al-Kabir, detailing the military campaign undertaken by Spain and its subsequent ramifications. The narrative also commemorates the triumph at the Battle of Mers el-Kébir, juxtaposed with the significant defeat endured by the Spanish forces. The author then transitions to the calamity that befell Oran, recounting the acts of treachery that precipitated the conflict and ultimately led to the city's occupation. Subsequently, he assesses the conditions in Oran post-occupation and explores the sequence of cities that fell to Spanish control, beginning with Bejaia, followed by Annaba, Mostaganem, and culminating in the Treaty of Miserable Hafsid, which was ratified by the Hafsid Sultan. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the Spanish debacle in Djerba in 1510.
The third chapter, entitled "Spanish Aggression Following the Turkish Rescue," examines the period of Spanish hostilities that ensued after the arrival of Turkish assistance, spanning from 1512 to 1518, culminating in the martyrdom of the hero Oruç. The chapter begins by detailing the origins and heritage of the Barbarossa brothers, elucidating their journey to the Maghreb region. It further explores the appeal for aid from the inhabitants of Bejaia and analyzes the ensuing confrontations with Spanish forces. The narrative progresses to recount the establishment of the Barbarossa brothers in Algeria, their correspondence with Sultan Selim I, and their endeavors to eliminate Salem al-Toumi.

The fourth chapter is entitled "The Violent Reaction, the Battle of Bab El-Oued, and the Great Algerian Victory." This section examines the intense response to Spanish aggression, with a particular emphasis on the Battle of Bab El-Oued, where the Spaniards faced a significant defeat. The narrative progresses to the liberation of the city of Tenes in 1517. Additionally, the chapter addresses the administrative structure of Algeria and the dynamics between the Algerians and Spaniards in Tlemcen. The author underscores the Zayyanids' appeal for Spanish support, which ultimately resulted in the occupation of Tlemcen. The discussion then shifts to the resistance led by Oruç and his subsequent martyrdom. The chapter concludes with an exploration of Khayr al-Din and the Ottoman Empire, starting with the betrayal experienced by the Barbarossa brothers in Bejaia at the hands of the Hafsid Sultan, as well as in Tlemcen, where the Zayyanid prince sought Spanish assistance. Ultimately, Khayr al-Din's appeal for the Algerian populace to align with the Ottoman Empire is presented, leading to a favorable response from the people and the Ottoman Sultan's agreement to incorporate Algeria as an Ottoman province.

The fifth chapter, entitled "The Character of Khayr al-Din," initiates with an exploration of the personality traits of Khayr al-Din Barbarossa. Following this, the author examines the Spanish defeat in Algeria, detailing the extensive nature of the Spanish military campaign and the resolute resistance exhibited by the Algerian Mujahideen. The narrative further includes an analysis of the Battle of Cherchell and the naval engagement at the Balearic Islands in 1530, along with their respective consequences. The author proceeds to recount the calamity that befell Tunisia in 1535, culminating in Khayr al-Din’s subsequent return to Algeria. The sixth chapter, titled "The Spaniards' Manipulation of Tlemcen," delves into the deterioration of the Zayyanid state and the underlying factors contributing to its vulnerability. The author also addresses the correspondence exchanged between the Spaniards and the final Zayyanid monarchs, emphasizing the importance of the treaties established during this era. Furthermore, the chapter discusses the individuals who collaborated with the Spanish adversary.

The seventh chapter is entitled "The Great Charles V Campaign Against the Capital of Algeria and the Humiliating Defeat." In this section, the author initiates a discussion regarding the context surrounding the Spanish military expedition against Algeria. He references the Spanish control of Gibraltar before elaborating on the Crusader campaign orchestrated by Charles V. The narrative encompasses details about the composition of his fleet, the scale of the campaign, and the progression of the battle that ultimately advanced towards the capital of Algeria. The text proceeds to examine Khayr al-Din's war against the Spanish forces, culminating in an analysis of the campaign's outcomes. The eighth chapter, entitled "Hassan ibn Khayr al-Din," centers on Hassan Pasha, the progeny of Khayr al-Din. It commences with a discussion of his ascension to leadership in Algeria. The chapter further explores the events in Tlemcen and the period of relative stability that characterized the Algerian state during his governance. Additionally, it addresses the involvement of the Saadian Sharifs in Morocco and the decline of the Zayyanid dynasty. The author highlights the significant victories achieved during this era and concludes the chapter with an evaluation of Hassan Pasha's policies and notable accomplishments. The ninth chapter, titled "Saleh Rais, the Hero of Unity and War," begins with an exploration of Saleh Rais’s strategies and goals aimed at consolidating the internal front. The narrative then transitions to the conclusion of the Zayyanid dynasty and its subsequent incorporation into Algeria in 1554. This chapter also details the conquest of Bejaia and the efforts to rescue the remaining Andalusians, followed by the liberation of Al-Qal'a from Spanish control. The author proceeds to discuss the preparations for the conquest of Oran and wraps up with the account of Saleh Rais's demise in June 1556 due to the plague.

The tenth chapter, entitled "Hassan ibn Khayr al-Din: Again, Liberation of Tlemcen," examines the re-emergence of Hassan Pasha in military affairs. It commences with the events of 1557, notably the demise of Hassan Qurso. This chapter details how Hassan Pasha successfully reclaimed Tlemcen from the Saadian forces, who had exploited the circumstances following the death of Saleh Rais. Additionally, the narrative includes the passing of Charles V, the Spanish monarch, alongside the disintegration of Spanish military power in Djerba. The chapter further elaborates on Hassan Pasha’s endeavors to liberate Al-Marsa al-Kabir and Oran, as well as his unsuccessful campaigns against Malta. It concludes with his designation as "Khodja Pasha."

In the eleventh chapter, entitled "Qalash Ali Pasha, the Great Mujahid: Correcting His Name," the author examines the historical figure of Ali Pasha, who ascended to the position of Beylerbey of Algeria in 1568. The narrative delves into Ali Pasha's endeavors to reclaim Oran from Spanish control, an initiative that, despite meticulous planning, ultimately proved unsuccessful. The focus then shifts to Ali Pasha's support for the Andalusian community and his role in liberating Tunisia from Spanish domination in 1569. The author further analyzes the significant Battle of Lepanto, during which the Ottomans faced defeat; however, Ali Pasha succeeded in rescuing forty Algerian vessels. The chapter proceeds to discuss the eventual liberation of Tunisia in 1574, marking the conclusion of both Spanish and Hafsid authority in the region. Additionally, the author provides an account of the Battle of the Three Kings (the Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin), detailing the combatants, the unfolding events, and the outcomes of the conflict. The chapter wraps up by highlighting Algeria's continued support for the Andalusians, culminating in the death of Qalash Ali in 1587 and a contemplation of the repercussions of the late 16th century on the area.

The twelfth chapter, entitled "Between the Two Crusades: A Period of Stagnation," initiates its discourse by examining the conclusion of the initial phase of the Spanish Crusade, elucidating the factors that contributed to this outcome. It further explores the English endeavor to compel Algeria to permit its vessels to navigate the Mediterranean Sea. Additionally, the chapter analyzes the unsuccessful French military expedition in Jijel and the Alawid campaign against Tlemcen, emphasizing the critical communication sent by Osman Pasha to the Alawid leaders. The chapter ultimately wraps up with an account of the failed attempt to reclaim Oran in 1696. The thirteenth chapter, titled "Algerian Poets Stir the Government," focuses on the influence of Algerian poets in galvanizing both the government and the populace to take action for the liberation of Oran. This chapter illustrates how intellectuals utilized their teachings and writings, religious leaders delivered impassioned sermons, and poets composed verses to awaken public consciousness regarding the hardships imposed by Spanish rule.

The fourteenth chapter, entitled "The Spanish Colonial System in Oran," provides an analysis of the socio-economic conditions of the region and its residents, emphasizing the financial benefits derived from the area and the nature of interactions between the Spanish colonizers and the indigenous population. Additionally, it delves into the structure and segmentation of the Arab tribes within the region. The fifteenth chapter, named "The Great Conquest and the Liberation of Oran," narrates the ascent of Muhammad Bakkdash Pasha in Algeria and his alliances with intellectuals, poets, and writers. It further investigates the call for jihad, which materialized in 1707 when the mujahideen commenced their preparations to liberate Oran. They assembled forces and initiated an offensive against the city. Despite fierce resistance from the Spaniards, the tide of battle shifted with the arrival of reinforcements from Malta. The Muslims successfully reclaimed the Tower of the Eyes and subsequently advanced to capture the Tower of Maraj. This chapter details the crucial battle that culminated in a momentous victory and follows the mujahideen's advance to Al-Marsa al-Kabir, which was liberated on April 16, 1708. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the reconstruction efforts in Oran and the documentation of Algerian poetry that celebrates this significant triumph.

The sixteenth chapter, entitled "The Second Spanish Crusade and the Recapture of Oran," examines the events surrounding the second Spanish crusade, commencing with the preparations undertaken by Spain to reclaim Oran. A military contingent of approximately thirty thousand troops was assembled, accompanied by a substantial fleet and various military resources. The chapter further elaborates on the royal decree issued by the Spanish crown on June 6, 1732, which called upon Catholics to participate in the effort to recover Oran. It chronicles the campaign's developments, noting that the Spanish forces arrived at Oran on June 15, 1732, where they encountered formidable resistance. Despite being outnumbered, the Bey, Bouchlaghem, ultimately retreated, resulting in the city being left unoccupied. The seventeenth chapter, titled "The Second Spanish Crusade and Algeria’s Greatest Victory," opens with an account of Spain's strategic preparations for an invasion of Algiers, led by King Charles III, who mobilized a formidable army of twenty-two thousand troops and equipped them with one hundred cannons. In response to this mobilization, Dey Muhammad Othman Pasha began to organize his forces to counter the Spanish threat. Reinforcements from various regions bolstered the Algerian defense, and the ensuing confrontation culminated in a protracted battle lasting ten days. The mujahideen exhibited remarkable valor and sacrifice in their defense of Algeria. The conflict reached its conclusion on July 11, 1775, resulting in a decisive defeat for the Spanish, who retreated in humiliation.

The eighteenth chapter, entitled "The Second Crusade: Repelling the Naval Invasion," commences with the 1768 prisoner exchange between Algeria and Spain, during which Algeria insisted on the release of all its detainees in return for Spanish captives. In spite of their prior defeat, Spain declined these terms and initiated preparations for a renewed military campaign. Upon learning of Spain's intentions, the Moroccan king alerted the Dey of Algeria, which led the mujahideen to ready themselves against the impending Spanish forces. When the Spanish arrived, the mujahideen dealt them a considerable defeat. Subsequently, on June 14, 1785, Spain sought to negotiate peace through French diplomatic intervention, proposing to relinquish Oran and Al-Marsa al-Kabir, along with financial reparations to secure peace with Algeria. Nevertheless, this agreement was never put into effect.
The nineteenth chapter, entitled "The Final Word and Settling the Accounts," opens with the demise of Bey Mustafa Bouchlaghem, which paves the way for the emergence of Muhammad ibn Othman al-Kurdi, commonly referred to as Muhammad al-Akhal. He launched an offensive against Oran, successfully besieging the city and severing its water supply on September 14, 1784, while also reclaiming the Red Tower. Hostilities ceased following the establishment of a peace treaty. The narrative further recounts the devastating earthquake that struck Oran between October 8 and 9, 1790, inflicting considerable destruction on the city's infrastructure. Subsequently, the mujahideen renewed their assault on Oran, breaching its fortifications despite the presence of Spanish reinforcements. In response to these incursions, Spain insisted on the enforcement of the prior peace treaty; however, Muhammad Othman Pasha countered that he would only comply if Spain surrendered Oran unconditionally. Following the death of Muhammad Othman Pasha on July 12, 1791, Dey Hassan Pasha took over leadership. The conflict persisted, with Spain continuing to seek peace. Ultimately, Hassan Pasha consented to negotiate terms with the council, which stipulated Spain's unconditional withdrawal from Oran and Al-Marsa al-Kabir, alongside an annual payment of 120,000 francs and permission to fish in the Coral Sea off the Algerian coast. This agreement was formalized on December 9, 1791, leading to the commencement of the Spanish withdrawal on December 17. On February 24, 1792, Bey Muhammad ibn Mustafa and the Algerian forces triumphantly entered Oran, marking their first action with the construction of the Grand Mosque, thereby concluding the era of Spanish aggression on Algerian territory.